Excision of pheochromocytoma

Pheochromocytoma is a rare neuroendocrine disease of the adrenal gland where catecholamine-secreting tumors cause hypertension. Pheochromocytoma is present in 0.05% - 0.2% of hypertensive individuals, the incidence of the disease presents equally between men and women with a distribution across age groups but peaks in between 40 and 50 years of age. The classic presentation of the disease is a triad of symptoms including headache, palpitations, diaphoresis with a documented clinical sign of hypertension (present in 90% of patients with pheochromocytoma). However, patients can often present with less definitive symptoms such as tremor, anxiety, flushing, weight loss, and hyperglycemia. While the majority of pheochromocytoma emerges from adrenal tumors, roughly 15-20% can be extra-adrenal in etiology.

During the early part of the 20th century, the perioperative mortality of this disease ranged between 26-50%. As surgery is curative in about 90% of presenting cases, the mortality has decreased to roughly 1% in specialized centers. Surgical resection can be approached in a variety of ways: (1) open laparotomy; (2) laparoscopic transabdominal; and (3) laparoscopic retroperitoneal. Each approach has different indications, advantages and disadvantages, as well as unique line and monitoring choices. The largest North American series published about pheochromocytoma excision described 108 cases, where 90% were conducted laparoscopically, and the perioperative morbidity rate was 13% without a single mortality.

Excision of pheochromocytoma

Anesthesia type	General
Airway	ETT
Lines and access	Arterial line Additional large-bore PIVs +/- Central venous catheter +/- Pulmonary Artery Catheter +/- Epidural catheter (dependant upon approach)
Monitors	Stanford Monitors Invasive blood pressure monitor +/- Central venous catheter +/- Pulmonary Artery Catheter
Primary anesthetic considerations
Preoperative	Preoperative alpha-blockade
Intraoperative	Rapid episodes of extreme hypertension Severe hypotension after adrenal vein ligation Cardiovascular collapse Hyperglycemia Hypovolemia
Postoperative	Residual hypertension Prolonged hypotension (requiring vasopressors) Hyperglycemia/Hypoglycemia
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Preoperative management

Patient evaluation

System	Considerations
Neurologic	Investigate headaches and fatigue
Cardiovascular	Evaluate history of chest pain, palpitations, arrythmia and signs of heart failure Patients may require EKG or echocardiography Patients may present with catecholamine-induced, Takotsubo, or dilated cardiomyopathy
Respiratory	Classify obstructive or restrictive lung disease
Gastrointestinal
Hematologic
Renal	Evaluate electrolyte disturbances Evaluate fluid status as patients are often hypovolemic from catecholamine excess
Endocrine	Patients may be functionally hyperglycemic due to excessive catacholamine release
Other

Labs and studies

• +/ - electrocardiogram to investigate palpitations, arrhythmia, cardiac ischemia, bundle branch block, or left ventricular hypertrophy
• +/- echocardiogram to assess signs of heart failure, Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, or to diagnose cardiac paragangliomas
• Capillary glucose to test temporary insulin resistance

Operating room setup

• Infusion manifold with high rate carrier
• Vasopressor infusion (typically non-direct sympathomimetics such as vasopressin)
• Direct vasodilator infusion
• +/- insulin infusion to treat hyperglycemia
• Diluted push syringes of vasodilators and vasopressors to adjust blood pressure with sudden changes to blood pressure during catecholamine surges during induction and tumor manipulation.

Patient preparation and premedication

Perioperative α-blockade: α-blockade continues to be a staple medication therapy for 10-14 days prior to pheochromocytoma excision

• Choice between Irreversible non-selective α-blockade (Phenoxybenzamine) or non-selective α-blockade (Doxazosin, Prazosin, and Terazosin)
• α-blockade blockade adequacy was originally described by the Roizen Criteria: (1) blood pressures < 160/90 for 24 hours prior to surgery; (2) Absence of orthostatic hypotension; (3) absence of ST or T-wave changes prior to surgery; (4) no more than 5 premature ventricular contractions in a minute. However, several centers have recently abandoned these strict criteria, given it's largely inpatient applications, and use a combination of symptoms of orthostatic hypotension, blood pressures, and duration of α-blockade to guide block adequacy.
• As titration of α-blockade increases prior to surgery, patients will typically exhibit tachycardia. At this time β-blockade or calcium-channel blockade may be introduced. It is still recommended to introduce β-blockade only after several days of α-blockade titration to avoid unopposed α-agonism from the circulating catecholamines, which may cause extreme hypertensive episodes for the patient.

Pre-Operative anxiolysis and analgesia:

• Catecholamine surges can occur with any noxious stimuli such as laryngoscopy, positive pressure ventilation, or abdominal insufflation. Preoperative anxiolysis and anaglesia is useful to prevent catecholamine surges during these episodes.

Early Fluid Resuscitation:

• Patients are often intravascularly dry due to excessive catecholamines. Early infusion of fluid to establish euvolemia prior to the clamp of the adrenal vein is advisable.
• Without proper resuscitation during the day-of-surgery or early intraoperative period, patients may exhibit drastic hypotension once the pheochromocytoma is removed.

Regional and neuraxial techniques

• Epidural analgesia may be useful for patients undergoing open laparotomy approach for pheochromocytoma excision

Intraoperative management

Monitoring and access

• Standard monitors
• Arterial line for immediate blood pressure management and electrolyte sampling
• +/- Central Venous Catheter (CVC) for vasoactive drug infusions (some specialized centers are moving away from CVC insertion)
• +/- Pulmonary artery catheter for severe heart failure or pulmonary hypertension
• Foley catheter to monitor fluid status

Induction and airway management

• Endotracheal tube

Positioning

• Supine for open laparotomy or combined procedures for multiple endocrine neoplasia presentations
• Lateral for transabdominal laparoscopic approach
• Prone for retroperitoneal laparoscopic approach

Procedure variants

	Open Laparotomy	Transabdominal Laparoscopic	Retroperitoneal Laparoscopic
Unique considerations			High Insufflation pressures (20-30mmHg)
Position	Supine	Lateral	Prone
Surgical time	4-6 hrs	3-5 hrs	1.5 hrs
EBL			60-100mL
Postoperative disposition	PACU or ICU	PACU or ICU	PACU
Pain management	Epidural	Oral and IV pain medications	Oral pain medications
Potential complications			Subcutaneous emphysema